Gram-negative bacterial infections, particularly those caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae (Kp), pose a major challenge in clinical medicine due to the rise of multidrug-resistant and hypervirulent strains. The lack of vaccines and increasing antibiotic resistance underscore the urgent need for alternative strategies.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication. These tiny membranous particles (30 to 150 nm), secreted by most cell types, can carry antigenic material and modulate immune responses. Their role in infection and immunity remains incompletely understood.
Here, we investigated the immunomodulatory potential of macrophage-derived EVs following Kp infection, focusing on their potential to induce protective immune responses in vitro and in vivo. Isolated EVs were characterized by nanoparticl